DOI Text

The Declaration of Independence
In Congress, July 4 1776

The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen United States of America

Below is the full text of the Declaration of Independence, the historic document adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced the American colonies' separation from British rule. It includes the preamble, a list of grievances against King George III, and the formal declaration of independence. The page also features an image of a "wet ink transfer" of the Declaration from the Stan Klos Collection, offering a visual representation of the document. Finally, the website includes a Rhetorical criticism of the Declaration of Independence.

In Congress, July 4, 1776 
The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America

When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.—That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.—That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it; and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.—Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance.

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.

He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power.

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their acts of pretended legislation:

For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:

For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:

For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:

For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighboring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the Lives of our people.

He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free People.

Nor have We been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.—

WE, THEREFORE, the REPRESENTATIVES of the UNITED STATES of AMERICA, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do.—And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.

Signed by ORDER and in BEHALF of the CONGRESS,

John Hancock, President             

 ATTEST. Charles Thomson, Secretary

Engrossed Declaration of Independence Circa 1776  - image courtesy of the National Archives

Rhetorical Criticism of The Declaration of Independence

The Declaration of Independence, drafted by Thomas Jefferson in 1776, is not only a seminal political document but also a masterful rhetorical composition. Jefferson’s ability to craft persuasive and enduring prose is rooted in his use of classical rhetorical strategies and a range of figures of speech that enhance its emotional, logical, and ethical appeal. Below is a rhetorical criticism that examines Jefferson's stylistic choices and rhetorical devices within the Declaration.

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Overview of the Declaration's Structure

The Declaration of Independence is structured in four parts:

1. The Introduction: Establishes the necessity of explaining the reasons for separation.
2. The Preamble: Articulates philosophical principles, notably the self-evident truths of equality and inalienable rights.
3. The Grievances: Lists specific complaints against King George III, supporting the argument for independence.
4. The Conclusion: Declares the colonies' independence and asserts their sovereignty.

Each section employs distinct rhetorical strategies to build a cohesive and compelling argument for breaking ties with Britain.

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Figures of Speech and Rhetorical Devices in the Declaration

1. Parallelism

Jefferson’s use of parallel structure is perhaps the most prominent rhetorical feature of the Declaration. It creates rhythm, reinforces key ideas, and enhances the document’s persuasiveness.

• Example:

  “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”

  The repetition of "that" introduces parallel clauses, lending the statement a formal and balanced cadence that underscores its universal significance.

2. Anaphora

The repetition of phrases at the beginning of successive clauses emphasizes the colonists' grievances and highlights the systematic nature of British tyranny.

• Example:

  "He has refused... He has forbidden... He has dissolved..."

  The repeated use of "He has" in the list of grievances directs blame squarely at King George III, creating a cumulative effect that portrays him as a tyrant.

3. Alliteration

Alliteration enhances the musicality and memorability of Jefferson's prose.

• Example:

  "...life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."

  The repetition of the "l" sound adds a lyrical quality, reinforcing the enduring resonance of these ideals.

4. Antithesis

Jefferson often employs antithesis to contrast opposing ideas, underscoring the moral dichotomy between the colonies and Britain.

• Example:

  "Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes."

  The contrast between "long established" and "light and transient" underscores the gravity of the colonists' decision to seek independence.

5. Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

Jefferson seamlessly integrates Aristotle’s rhetorical appeals:

• Ethos (Credibility): Jefferson establishes the colonies' moral authority by framing their decision as based on reason and necessity:

  “A decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

• Pathos (Emotion): Emotional appeals abound, especially in the grievances, where Jefferson describes British actions as “absolute Despotism,” “oppressions,” and “injuries.”

  "...unfit to be the ruler of a free people."

• Logos (Logic): Jefferson’s logical appeals are evident in the systematic enumeration of grievances, each designed to justify the colonies’ decision.

6. Metaphor

While sparingly used, Jefferson incorporates metaphor to make abstract ideas more vivid.

• Example:

  "...the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them..."

  The metaphorical reference to the “Laws of Nature” imbues the argument with a sense of inevitability and divine sanction.

7. Hyperbole

Jefferson uses hyperbolic language to emphasize the extent of British injustices.

• Example:

  “...all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States.”

  The term “absolute Tyranny” amplifies the perceived threat of British rule.

8. Synecdoche

Jefferson uses synecdoche by substituting parts for wholes, emphasizing collective identity and shared responsibility.

• Example:

  "We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us."

  "Legislature" represents the British government as a whole.

9. Asyndeton

The deliberate omission of conjunctions in lists conveys urgency and force.

• Example:

  "We mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor."

  The lack of conjunctions emphasizes the gravity and solemnity of the pledge.

10. Causal and Conditional Clauses

Jefferson incorporates causal and conditional constructions to establish logical connections and justifications.

• Example:

  "But when a long train of abuses and usurpations... evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government."

  These clauses build a rational argument for rebellion, aligning it with natural law.

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Stylistic and Persuasive Impact

Jefferson’s eloquent prose combines rational argumentation with emotionally charged language. His use of classical rhetorical devices imbues the Declaration with a timeless quality, allowing it to resonate across generations. The document achieves its purpose by:

1. Creating Unity: The inclusive "we" reinforces a collective colonial identity.
2. Establishing Moral Authority: Appeals to natural law and divine justice strengthen the ethical foundation of the colonies’ cause.
3. Generating Momentum: Repetition and rhythm propel the argument, creating a sense of inevitability.
4. Undermining the Opponent: The direct indictment of King George III personalizes the grievances, channeling colonial anger.

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Conclusion

The Declaration of Independence remains a rhetorical masterpiece, blending philosophical depth with persuasive artistry. Through his deft use of figures of speech, Thomas Jefferson constructs a powerful argument that transcends the immediate context of 1776. By combining logical rigor with emotional resonance, the Declaration not only justified the colonies’ bid for independence but also inspired future generations to strive for liberty and equality. Its rhetorical elegance ensures its enduring status as one of history’s most iconic texts.

The Congressional Evolution of the United States of America 

For students and teachers of U.S. history, this video features Stanley and Christopher Klos presenting America's Four United Republics Curriculum at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School. Filmed in December 2015, this video is an informal recording by an audience member capturing a presentation attended by approximately 200 students, professors, and guests. To explore the full curriculum, [download it here]. 

Continental Congress of the United Colonies Presidents 

Sept. 5, 1774 to July 1, 1776

Peyton Randolph	September 5, 1774	October 22, 1774
Henry Middleton	October 22, 1774	October 26, 1774
Peyton Randolph	May 20, 1775	May 24, 1775
John Hancock	May 25, 1775	July 1, 1776

Commander-in-Chief United Colonies & States of America

George Washington: June 15, 1775 - July 1, 1776

Continental Congress of the United States Presidents 
July 2, 1776 to February 28, 1781

John Hancock	July 2, 1776	October 29, 1777
Henry Laurens	November 1, 1777	December 9, 1778
John Jay	December 10, 1778	September 28, 1779
Samuel Huntington	September 29, 1779	February 28, 1781

Commander-in-Chief United States of America

George Washington: July 2, 1776 - February 28, 1781

Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled
March 1, 1781 to March 3, 1789

Samuel Huntington	March 1, 1781	July 6, 1781
Samuel Johnston	July 10, 1781	Declined Office
Thomas McKean	July 10, 1781	November 4, 1781
John Hanson	November 5, 1781	November 3, 1782
Elias Boudinot	November 4, 1782	November 2, 1783
Thomas Mifflin	November 3, 1783	June 3, 1784
Richard Henry Lee	November 30, 1784	November 22, 1785
John Hancock	November 23, 1785	June 5, 1786
Nathaniel Gorham	June 6, 1786	February 1, 1787
Arthur St. Clair	February 2, 1787	January 21, 1788
Cyrus Griffin	January 22, 1788	January 21, 1789

Commander-in-Chief United States of America

George Washington: March 2, 1781 - December 23, 1783

Articles of Confederation Congress
United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) Sessions

USCA	Session Dates	USCA Convene Date	President(s)
First	03-01-1781 to 11-04-1781*	03-02-1781	Samuel Huntington &  Thomas McKean
Second	11-05-1781 to 11-03-1782	11-05-1781	John Hanson
Third	11-04-1782 to 11-02-1783	11-04-1782	Elias Boudinot
Fourth	11-03-1783 to 10-31-1784	11-03-1783	Thomas Mifflin
Fifth	11-01-1784 to 11-06-1785	11-29-1784	Richard Henry Lee
Sixth	11-07-1785 to 11-05-1786	11-23-1785	John Hancock &  Nathaniel Gorham
Seventh	11-06-1786 to 11-04-1787	02-02-1787	Arthur St. Clair
Eighth	11-05-1787 to 11-02-1788	01-21-1788	Cyrus Griffin
Ninth	11-03-1788 to 03-03-1789**	None	None

* The Articles of Confederation was ratified by the mandated 13th State on February 2, 1781, and the dated adopted by the Continental Congress to commence the new  United States in Congress Assembled government was March 1, 1781.  The USCA convened under the Articles of Confederation Constitution on March 2, 1781.  

** On September 14, 1788, the Eighth United States in Congress Assembled resolved that March 4th, 1789, would be commencement date of the Constitution of 1787's federal government thus dissolving the USCA on March 3rd, 1789.

Presidents of the United States of America

1789 - Present

POTUS - CLICK HERE

United Colonies and States First Ladies

1774 - Present

FLOTUS - CLICK HERE

Capitals of the United Colonies and States of America

Philadelphia	Sept. 5, 1774 to Oct. 24, 1774	City Tavern & Carpenter’s Hall
Philadelphia	May 10, 1775 to Dec. 12, 1776	Pennsylvania State House
Baltimore	Dec. 20, 1776 to Feb. 27, 1777	Henry Fite’s House
Philadelphia	March 4, 1777 to Sept. 18, 1777	Pennsylvania State House
Lancaster	September 27, 1777	Lancaster  Court House
York	Sept. 30, 1777 to June 27, 1778	York-town Court House
Philadelphia	July 2, 1778 to June 21, 1783	College Hall - PA State House
Princeton	June 30, 1783 to Nov. 4, 1783	Prospect House - Nassau Hall
Annapolis	Nov. 26, 1783 to Aug. 19, 1784	Maryland, State House
Trenton	Nov. 1, 1784 to Dec. 24, 1784	French Arms Tavern
New York City	Jan. 11, 1785 to Nov. 13, 1788	New York City Hall
New York City	October 6, 1788 to March 3,1789	Walter Livingston House
New York City	March 3,1789 to August 12, 1790	Federal Hall
Philadelphia	Dec. 6,1790 to May 14, 1800	Congress Hall
Washington DC	November 17,1800 to Present	Two US Capitol Buildings

Chart Comparing Presidential Powers - Click Here

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Edited: Open AI. (2024). ChatGPT [Large language model] - https://chatgpt.com